Analyzing Transactions

The first step in the accounting process is to analyze every transaction (economic event) that affects the business. The accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity) must remain in balance after every transaction is recorded, so accountants must analyze each transaction to determine how it affects owner's equity and the different types of assets and liabilities before recording the transaction.

 Assume Mr. J. Green invests $15,000 to start a landscape business. This transaction increases the company's assets, specifically cash, by $15,000 and increases owner's equity by $15,000. Notice that the accounting equation remains in balance.

Mr. Green uses $5,000 of the company's cash to place a down‐payment on a used truck that costs $15,000, and he signs a note payable that requires him to pay the remaining $10,000 in eighteen months. This transaction decreases one type of asset (cash) by $5,000, increases another type of asset (vehicles) by $15,000, and increases a liability (notes payable) by $10,000. The accounting equation remains in balance, and Mr. Green now has two types of assets ($10,000 in cash and a vehicle worth $15,000), a liability (a $10,000 note payable), and owner's equity of $15,000.

Given the large number of transactions that companies usually have, accountants need a more sophisticated system for recording transactions than the one shown on the previous page. Accountants use the double‐entry bookkeeping system to keep the accounting equation in balance and to double‐check the numerical accuracy of transaction entries. Under this system, each transaction is recorded using at least two accounts. An account is a record of all transactions involving a particular item.

Companies maintain separate accounts for each type of asset (cash, accounts receivable, inventory, etc.), each type of liability (accounts payable, wages payable, notes payable, etc.), owner investments (usually referred to as the owner's capital account in a sole proprietorship), owner drawings (withdrawals made by the owner), each type of revenue (sales revenue, service revenue, etc.), and each type of expense (rent expense, wages expense, etc.). All accounts taken together make up the general ledger. For organizational purposes, each account in the general ledger is assigned a number, and companies maintain a chart of accounts, which lists the accounts and account numbers.

Account numbers vary significantly from one company to the next, depending on the company's size and complexity. A sole proprietorship may have few accounts, but a multinational corporation may have thousands of accounts and use ten‐ or even twenty‐digit numbers to track accounts by location, department, project code, and other categories. Most companies numerically separate asset, liability, owner's equity, revenue, and expense accounts. A typical small business might use the numbers 100–199 for asset accounts, 200–299 for liability accounts, 300–399 for owner's equity accounts, 400–499 for revenue accounts, and 500–599 for expense accounts.

Trial Balance

The Trial Balance

After posting all transactions from an accounting period, accountants prepare atrial balance to verify that the total of all accounts with debit balances equals the total of all accounts with credit balances. The trial balance lists every open general ledger account by account number and provides separate debit and credit columns for entering account balances. The Greener Landscape Group's trial balance for April 30,20X2 appears below.

	Account	Debit	Credit
100	Cash	$ 6,355
110	Accounts Receivable	150
140	Supplies	50
145	Prepaid Insurance	1,200
150	Equipment	3,000
155	Vehicles	15,000
200	Accounts Payable		$ 50
250	Unearned Revenue		270
280	Notes Payable		10,000
300	J. Green, Capital		15,000
350	J. Green, Drawing	50
400	Lawn Cutting Revenue		750
500	Wages Expense	200
510	Gas Expense	30
520	Advertising Expense	35
		$26,070	$26,070

The Greener Landscape Group Trial Balance April 30,20X2

Although dollar signs are not used in journals or ledger accounts, trial balances generally include dollar signs next to the first figure in each column and next to each column's total. Trial balances usually include accounts that had activity during the accounting period but have a zero balance at the end of the period.

An error has occurred when total debits on a trial balance do not equal total credits. There are standard techniques for uncovering some of the errors that cause unequal trial balances. After double‐checking each column's total to make sure the problem is not simply an addition error on the trial balance, find the difference between the debit and credit balance totals. If the number 2 divides evenly into this difference, look for an account balance that equals half the difference and that incorrectly appears in the column with the larger total. If the Greener Landscape Group's $50 accounts payable balance were mistakenly put in the debit column, for example, total debits would be $100 greater than total credits on the trial balance.

If the number 9 divides evenly into the difference between the debit and credit balance totals, look for a transposition error in one of the account balances. For example, suppose the cash account's balance of $6,355 were incorrectly entered on the trial balance as $6,535. This would cause total debits to be $180 greater than total credits on the trial balance, an amount evenly divisible by 9 ($180 ÷ 9 = $20). Incidentally, the number of digits in the resulting quotient—the quotient 20 has two digits–always indicates that the transposition error begins this number of digits from the right side of an account balance. Also, the value of the leftmost digit in the quotient— 2 in this case— always equals the difference between the two transposed numbers. Test this by transposing any two adjacent numbers in the trial balance and performing the calculations yourself.

If the difference between the debit and credit balance totals is not divisible by 2 or9, look for a ledger account with a balance that equals the difference and is missing from the trial balance. Of course, two or more errors can combine to render these techniques ineffective, and other types of mistakes frequently occur. If the error is not apparent, return to the ledger and recalculate each account's balance. If the error remains, return to the journal and verify that each transaction is posted correctly.

Some errors do not cause the trial balance's column totals to disagree. For example, the columns in a trial balance agree when transactions are not journalized or when journal entries are not posted to the general ledger. Similarly, recording transactions in the wrong accounts does not lead to unequal trial balances. Another common error a trial balance does not catch happens when a single transaction is posted twice. The trial balance is a useful tool, but every transaction must be carefully analyzed, journalized, and posted to ensure the reliability and usefulness of accounting records.

The General Ledger

After journalizing transactions, the next step in the accounting process is to post transactions to the accounts in the general ledger. Although T accounts provide a conceptual framework for understanding accounts, most businesses use a more informative and structured spreadsheet layout. A typical account includes date, explanation, and reference columns to the left of the debit column and a balance column to the right of the credit column. The reference column identifies the journal page containing the transaction. The balance column shows the account's balance after every transaction.

When an account does not have a normal balance, brackets enclose the balance. Assets normally have debit balances, for example, so brackets enclose a checking account's balance only when the account is overdrawn.

As the numbered arrows below indicate, you should post a transaction's first line item to the correct ledger account, completing each column and calculating the account's new balance. Then you should enter the account's reference number in the journal. Repeat this sequence of steps for every account listed in the journal entry.

Referencing the account's number on the journal after posting the entry ensures that every line item that has a reference number in the journal has already been posted. This practice can be helpful if phone calls or other distractions interrupt the posting process.

Journal Entries

Tracking business activity with T accounts would be cumbersome because most businesses have a large number of transactions each day. These transactions are initially recorded on source documents, such as invoices or checks. The first step in the accounting process is to analyze each transaction and identify what effect it has on the accounts. After making this determination, an accountant enters the transactions in chronological order into a journal, a process called journalizing the transactions. Although many companies use specialized journals for certain transactions, all businesses use a general journal. In this book, the terms general journal and journal are used interchangeably.

 The journal's page number appears near the upper right corner. In the example below, GJ1 stands for page 1 of the general journal. Many general journals have five columns: Date, Account Title and Description, Posting Reference, Debit, and Credit.

To record a journal entry, begin by entering the date of the transaction in the journal's date column. For convenience, include the year and month only at the top of each page and next to each month's first entry. In the next column, list each account affected by the transaction on a separate line, and enter a short description of the transaction immediately below the list of accounts. The accounts being debited always appear above the accounts being credited, which are indented slightly. The posting reference column remains blank until the journal entry is transferred to the accounts, a process called posting, at which time the account's number is placed in this column. Finally, enter the debit or credit amount for each account in the appropriate columns on the right side of the journal. Generally, one blank line separates each transaction.

Double‐Entry Bookkeeping

Under the double‐entry bookkeeping system, the full value of each transaction is recorded on the debit side of one or more accounts and also on the credit side of one or more accounts. Therefore, the combined debit balance of all accounts always equals the combined credit balance of all accounts.

Suppose a new company obtains a long‐term loan for $50,000 on August 1. The company's cash account (an asset) increases by $50,000, so it is debited for this amount. Simultaneously, the company's notes payable account (a liability) increases by $50,000, so it is credited for this amount. Both sides of the accounting equation increase by $50,000, and total debits and credits remain equal.

Some transactions affect only one side of the accounting equation, but the double‐entry bookkeeping system nevertheless ensures that the accounting equation remains in balance. For example, if the company pays $30,000 on August 3 to purchase equipment, the cash account's decrease is recorded with a $30,000 credit and the equipment account's increase is recorded with a $30,000 debit. These two asset‐account entries offset each other, so the accounting equation remains in balance. Since the cash balance was $50,000 before this transaction occurred, the company has $20,000 in cash after the equipment purchase.

A compound entry is necessary when a single transaction affects three or more accounts. Suppose the company's owner purchases a used delivery truck for $20,000 on August 6 by making a $2,000 cash down payment and obtaining a three‐year note payable for the remaining $18,000. This transaction is recorded by debiting (increasing) the vehicles account for $20,000, crediting (increasing) the notes payable account for $18,000, and crediting (decreasing) the cash account for $2,000.

The debits and credits total $20,000, and the accounting equation remains in balance because the $18,000 net increase in assets is matched by an $18,000 increase in liabilities. After these three transactions, the company has $68,000 in assets (cash $18,000; equipment $30,000; vehicles $20,000) and $68,000 in liabilities (notes payable).

Internal Control

Internal control is the process designed to ensure reliable financial reporting, effective and efficient operations, and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Safeguarding assets against theft and unauthorized use, acquisition, or disposal is also part of internal control.

Control activities. Control activities are the specific policies and procedures management uses to achieve its objectives. The most important control activities involve segregation of duties, proper authorization of transactions and activities, adequate documents and records, physical control over assets and records, and independent checks on performance. A short description of each of these control activities appears below.Control environment. The management style and the expectations of upper‐level managers, particularly their control policies, determine the control environment. An effective control environment helps ensure that established policies and procedures are followed. The control environment includes independent oversight provided by a board of directors and, in publicly held companies, by an audit committee; management's integrity, ethical values, and philosophy; a defined organizational structure with competent and trustworthy employees; and the assignment of authority and responsibility.

• Segregation of duties requires that different individuals be assigned responsibility for different elements of related activities, particularly those involving authorization, custody, or recordkeeping. For example, the same person who is responsible for an asset's recordkeeping should not be respon sible for physical control of that asset Having different indi viduals perform these functions creates a system of checks and balances.
• Proper authorization of transactions and activities helps ensure that all company activities adhere to established guide lines unless responsible managers authorize another course of action. For example, a fixed price list may serve as an official authorization of price for a large sales staff. In addition, there may be a control to allow a sales manager to authorize reason able deviations from the price list.
• Adequate documents and records provide evidence that financial statements are accurate. Controls designed to ensure adequate recordkeeping include the creation of invoices and other documents that are easy to use and sufficiently informa tive; the use of prenumbered, consecutive documents; and the timely preparation of documents.
• Physical control over assets and records helps protect the company's assets. These control activities may include elec tronic or mechanical controls (such as a safe, employee ID cards, fences, cash registers, fireproof files, and locks) or computer-related controls dealing with access privileges or established backup and recovery procedures.
• Independent checks on performance, which are carried out by employees who did not do the work being checked, help ensure the reliability of accounting information and the efficiency of operations. For example, a supervisor verifies the accuracy of a retail clerk's cash drawer at the end of the day. Internal auditors may also verity that the supervisor performed the check of the cash drawer.

In order to identify and establish effective controls, management must continually assess the risk, monitor control implementation, and modify controls as needed. Top managers of publicly held companies must sign a statement of responsibility for internal controls and include this statement in their annual report to stockholders.

Accounting Principles

Accountants use generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) to guide them in recording and reporting financial information. GAAP comprises a broad set of principles that have been developed by the accounting profession and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Two laws, the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, give the SEC authority to establish reporting and disclosure requirements. However, the SEC usually operates in an oversight capacity, allowing the FASB and the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) to establish these requirements. The GASB develops accounting standards for state and local governments.

The current set of principles that accountants use rests upon some underlying assumptions. The basic assumptions and principles presented on the next several pages are considered GAAP and apply to most financial statements. In addition to these concepts, there are other, more technical standards accountants must follow when preparing financial statements. Some of these are discussed later in this book, but other are left for more advanced study.

Economic entity assumption. Financial records must be separately maintained for each economic entity. Economic entities include businesses, governments, school districts, churches, and other social organizations. Although accounting information from many different entities may be combined for financial reporting purposes, every economic event must be associated with and recorded by a specific entity. In addition, business records must not include the personal assets or liabilities of the owners.

Monetary unit assumption. An economic entity's accounting records include only quantifiable transactions. Certain economic events that affect a company, such as hiring a new chief executive officer or introducing a new product, cannot be easily quantified in monetary units and, therefore, do not appear in the company's accounting records. Furthermore, accounting records must be recorded using a stable currency. Businesses in the United States usually use U.S. dollars for this purpose.

Full disclosure principle. Financial statements normally provide information about a company's past performance. However, pending lawsuits, incomplete transactions, or other conditions may have imminent and significant effects on the company's financial status. The full disclosure principle requires that financial statements include disclosure of such information. Footnotes supplement financial statements to convey this information and to describe the policies the company uses to record and report business transactions.

Time period assumption. Most businesses exist for long periods of time, so artificial time periods must be used to report the results of business activity. Depending on the type of report, the time period may be a day, a month, a year, or another arbitrary period. Using artificial time periods leads to questions about when certain transactions should be recorded. For example, how should an accountant report the cost of equipment expected to last five years? Reporting the entire expense during the year of purchase might make the company seem unprofitable that year and unreasonably profitable in subsequent years. Once the time period has been established, accountants use GAAP to record and report that accounting period's transactions.

Accrual basis accounting. In most cases, GAAP requires the use of accrual basis accounting rather than cash basis accounting. Accrual basis accounting, which adheres to the revenue recognition, matching, and cost principles discussed below, captures the financial aspects of each economic event in the accounting period in which it occurs, regardless of when the cash changes hands. Under cash basis accounting, revenues are recognized only when the company receives cash or its equivalent, and expenses are recognized only when the company pays with cash or its equivalent.

Revenue recognition principle. Revenue is earned and recognized upon product delivery or service completion, without regard to the timing of cash flow. Suppose a store orders five hundred compact discs from a wholesaler in March, receives them in April, and pays for them in May. The wholesaler recognizes the sales revenue in April when delivery occurs, not in March when the deal is struck or in May when the cash is received. Similarly, if an attorney receives a $100 retainer from a client, the attorney doesn't recognize the money as revenue until he or she actually performs $100 in services for the client.

Matching principle. The costs of doing business are recorded in the same period as the revenue they help to generate. Examples of such costs include the cost of goods sold, salaries and commissions earned, insurance premiums, supplies used, and estimates for potential warranty work on the merchandise sold. Consider the wholesaler who delivered five hundred CDs to a store in April. These CDs change from an asset (inventory) to an expense (cost of goods sold) when the revenue is recognized so that the profit from the sale can be determined.

Cost principle. Assets are recorded at cost, which equals the value exchanged at the time of their acquisition. In the United States, even if assets such as land or buildings appreciate in value over time, they are not revalued for financial reporting purposes.

Going concern principle. Unless otherwise noted, financial statements are prepared under the assumption that the company will remain in business indefinitely. Therefore, assets do not need to be sold at fire‐sale values, and debt does not need to be paid off before maturity. This principle results in the classification of assets and liabilities as short‐term (current) and long‐term. Long‐term assets are expected to be held for more than one year. Long‐term liabilities are not due for more than one year.

Relevance, reliability, and consistency. To be useful, financial information must be relevant, reliable, and prepared in a consistent manner. Relevant information helps a decision maker understand a company's past performance, present condition, and future outlook so that informed decisions can be made in a timely manner. Of course, the information needs of individual users may differ, requiring that the information be presented in different formats. Internal users often need more detailed information than external users, who may need to know only the company's value or its ability to repay loans. Reliable information is verifiable and objective. Consistent information is prepared using the same methods each accounting period, which allows meaningful comparisons to be made between different accounting periods and between the financial statements of different companies that use the same methods.

Principle of conservatism. Accountants must use their judgment to record transactions that require estimation. The number of years that equipment will remain productive and the portion of accounts receivable that will never be paid are examples of items that require estimation. In reporting financial data, accountants follow the principle of conservatism, which requires that the less optimistic estimate be chosen when two estimates are judged to be equally likely. For example, suppose a manufacturing company's Warranty Repair Department has documented a three‐percent return rate for product X during the past two years, but the company's Engineering Department insists this return rate is just a statistical anomaly and less than one percent of product X will require service during the coming year. Unless the Engineering Department provides compelling evidence to support its estimate, the company's accountant must follow the principle of conservatism and plan for a three‐percent return rate. Losses and costs—such as warranty repairs—are recorded when they are probable and reasonably estimated. Gains are recorded when realized.

Materiality principle. Accountants follow the materiality principle, which states that the requirements of any accounting principle may be ignored when there is no effect on the users of financial information. Certainly, tracking individual paper clips or pieces of paper is immaterial and excessively burdensome to any company's accounting department. Although there is no definitive measure of materiality, the accountant's judgment on such matters must be sound. Several thousand dollars may not be material to an entity such as General Motors, but that same figure is quite material to a small, family‐owned business.